Critical Thinker: January 2015

Culture Code Lesson Six: Chapters 9 and 10

Here is a link to a Rapaille Skeptic or Non-Kool-Aid Drinker

Does Rapaille have credibility? He was fired by the Quebec City Mayor.

Is Rapaille sexist and flat-out wrong in regards to how he represents women as car buyers?

Culture Code Lesson 6 Chapters 9 and 10

One. What is an “alibi”?

When our reptilian desires have no justification for our fulfilling those desires, we force a “justification” or what we might call a false justification for acquiring things we don’t really need. We call these justifications alibis.

We try to allay our guilt for our self-indulgences through these alibis.

“I should treat myself to that Audi I’ve been wanting because you know what, life is short, man.”

“I need that pair of shoes I don’t need because variety is the spice of life.”

“I need that new laptop because no one in the world loves me and, dammit, it’s up to me to just go out and show the world that I love myself.”

“I need this Lexus because my clients will trust and admire me more and added trust and admiration translate into increased client accounts.”

“I need this extra luxury watch because it will make me feel good about myself and the added self-confidence will help me win friends and admiration, which will help motivate me to train harder in the gym, which will make me lose weight, which will add twenty years to my life. My God, how can I afford to NOT buy that Rolex?”

“Oh my God, these luxury spa towels are on sale for only five dollars. They’re fifty dollars everywhere else. If I don’t buy these, I'll actually be LOSING money and I'll hate myself forever for being such an IDIOT!”

We find the number one alibi embedded in the American Code for shopping:

“The American Culture Code for shopping is RECONNECTING WITH LIFE” (158).

Variations of the above are we shop for renewal, self-approval, self-affirmation, reward, rebirth, all forms of reconnecting with life.

Two. In what crucial way is shopping more than the acquiring of goods?

We read on page 158 that shopping is a social experience.

We share with others our purchases. We consult with friends before we make a major purchase. We review things online and get feedback and join online communities where people discuss the merits of this or that product.

This Code of reconnecting with life through social experience taps into America’s adolescent culture of “going out to play.”

Buying is a specific purchase, Rapaille reminds us, but shopping is a more grand, consuming experience. We live to shop. We erect shopping into a religion. For many, shopping is the height (apotheosis) of human experience.

The adolescent is bored with “the same old stuff” and constantly is restless to acquire new things.

Three. What is the anxiety resulting from buying or purchasing something?

We read on page 160 that shoppers, especially women shoppers, translate a purchase as the death of the shopping experience. Therefore, the act of shopping is often more exciting than the actual purchase. I’m reminded of a famous quote by Kierkegaard who wrote, “Fulfillment is in the wish.”

Also the drama of shopping can be greater than the actual purchase. Here’s an eBay ad: “Go for the win!”

In other words, shopping can be like a competition.

In fact, we acquire luxury products to compete with others and “outrank” them.

As we read on page 165, “the American Culture Code for luxury is MILITARY STRIPES.”

We see this with Honda LX, Sport, EX, Touring, Limited, etc. These are the military stripes in cars.

We see this with watches with entry-level luxury like Hamilton and Tissot, all the way to Panerai and Rolex at the top.

Mercedes may be the world’s best brand equating the Mercedes with success or “I made it.”

Americans believe that “good people succeed”; therefore, having luxuries gives us recognition for our virtue and nobility.

Skipping a long line at an airport because we’re in first-class is a powerful message to others that “we are better than them.”

Four. What is the cultural conflict between America and France?

While the French believe in thinking to sort out a problem, Americans believe in “taking action,” “taking charge,” and quick shows of muscle, power, and strength.

The French hate American food, but love our imaginations as they pertain to the creation of the entertainment industry.

In France, the Code for America is SPACE TRAVELERS (172).

We are aliens who land on any planet we choose and impose our will over it.

The Code for America in Germany is JOHN WAYNE. In other words, Americans are seen as cowboys.

The British see us as spoiled brats. There the Code for America is UNASHAMEDLY ABUNDANT.

The French Code for France is IDEA. Philosophy is the highest value.

In England, the Code for England is CLASS.

In Germany, the Code for Germany is ORDER.

Analyzing Argument from Chapter 4 of From Critical Thinking to Argument Lesson

Lesson 4: Chapters 5 and 6: Analysis and Development of an Argument

How Can You Improve Your Critical Reading?

One. Identify the main idea, claim, or thesis in a piece of writing.

Two. Identify the form and structure. Essays use a variety of expository modes: contrast, comparison, argumentation, description, narrative, cause and effect analysis, extended definition, to name several.

Three. What problem is the writer trying to define?

Four. What bias, if any, does the writer bring to the topic?

Five. Notice the shifts from specificity to generality (induction) or generality to specificity (deduction).

Six. Notice the transitions used to establish a number of reasons (additionally), contrast (however, on the other hand, to the contrary), and comparison (similarly).

Seven. Use annotations, writing key ideas in the margins and underlining key words and phrases. Annotating increases your memory and reading comprehension. Using a pen is better than a highlighter because you can write your own specific response to what you’re reading whereas a highlighter is too fat to make comments. Another advantage of using a pen is that you might come up with ideas for your essay response, even a thesis, and you don’t want to forget that material.

Eight. Look up unfamiliar words to build your vocabulary and increase your understanding of the piece.

Nine. Identify the writer’s style and tone (voice). The voice could be conversational, supercilious (arrogant), morally outraged, friendly, condescending, ironic, etc.

Ten. Notice if the writer is being implicit, using implication or suggestion, rather than being direct and explicit in the expression of the main idea.

Eleven. Ask if the writer considered opposing views fairly before coming to his or her conclusion.

Twelve. What political point of view, if any, informs the piece?

Thirteen. How strong is the evidence in the piece that is used to support the writer’s claim?

Fourteen. What is the intended readership? Educated adults? Experts? Children?

Your first job in analyzing a text, is to determine the author’s thesis or purpose.

Was the purpose to persuade you to think about something differently or take action, analyze causes and effects, take you through the process of changing your car battery (process analysis), expose the corruption of a bureaucracy?

Once you determine the thesis, examine the author’s methods:

Does the writer quote authorities? Are these authorities competent and credible in the field?

Does the writer also address competent authorities that take a different, perhaps contrarian point of view?

Does the writer use credible statistics? Are the statistics current? Have the statistics been interpreted fairly and accurately?

Does the writer build the argument by using solid examples and analogies? Are they compelling? Why? Why not?

Are the writer’s assumptions acceptable?

Does the writer consider all relevant factors? Has she omitted some points that you think should be discussed? For instance, should the author recognize certain opposing positions and perhaps concede something to them?

Does the writer seek to persuade by means of ridicule and mockery? If so, is the ridicule fair and appropriate? Is the ridicule further supported by rational argument?

Is the argument aimed at a particular audience?

What tone, voice or persona is evident in the essay? Does the voice or persona give the essay credibility? Why or why not?

Some voices to consider:

Confident and straightforward

Arrogant and pompous

Mocking and self-aggrandizing

Bullheaded incuriosity for opposing views

So sanctimonious and pious as to be cloying and saccharine

So sanctimonious as to be unctuous

Persnickety

Whimsical, playful, capricious

Deadpan ironical

Gleefully self-righteous

Curmudgeonly misanthropic

Bitter and pessimistic

Effulgently optimistic

Writing Evaluations or Critiques

When you evaluate an author’s text (essay or book), your argument about whether or not the author’s thesis was effectively supported or not is your thesis.

Example

Rapaille attempts feebly to support his thesis with stereotypical examples because only by forcing simplistic illustrations to support his ludicrously over generalized claim does he have a chance of sounding convincing.

"Why Female Athletes Shouldn't Have to Beat Men"

The mixed martial artist Ronda Rousey has defeated 11 opponents, the most recent one in only 14 seconds. Perhaps predictably, this has led to questions about whether she will fight men.

In an interview with Marlow Stern of The Daily Beast, Ms. Rousey answered in the negative: “I don’t think it’s a great idea to have a man hitting a woman on television,” she said. “I’ll never say that I’ll lose, but you could have a girl getting totally beat up on TV by a guy—which is a bad image to put across.” She also alluded to the recent string of domestic-violence arrests among N.F.L. players.

Her reluctance to risk subjecting viewers to such an image is understandable. But even laying aside the issue of domestic violence, it’s worth asking another question: Why do we assume that a successful female athlete should move on to competing with male ones?

Ms. Rousey is undefeated in her weight class. Is her achievement somehow less legitimate because her opponents have been women? Is the only mark of true athleticism the ability to beat a man?

Those who would like to see Ms. Rousey in a mixed-gender bout might argue it would simply be an opportunity for her to fight the best of the best. But the presence of weight classes in mixed martial arts is an acknowledgment that it doesn’t always make sense to compare athletes with different bodies. If Ms. Rousey wouldn’t typically fight someone twice her size, does it make sense for her to fight someone who may have different bone density, different body fat percentage, a different center of gravity? Isn’t she already, by the accepted standards of her sport, the best of the best?

Gender segregation in sports has a complicated history, and it’s possible that more sports will one day be mixed-gender. It’s also possible that sports will one day adopt groupings that have nothing to do with gender — that are based on muscle mass, for instance, or skeletal structure. And if female athletes want to compete against men, they shouldn’t be barred from doing so.

But in the system we have now, expecting a woman to face a male opponent when she’s expressed no interest in doing so implies that excelling at women’s sports is a secondary achievement. It suggests that women’s sports are like the minor leagues — get good enough, and maybe you can play with the men.

And indeed, female athletes are too often treated as secondary. Last year, Lindsey Adler of BuzzFeed estimated that Kobe Bryant made almost three times as much for the 2013-2014 season as all the players in the W.N.B.A. combined. And a recent analysis of seven British newspapers found that just 4 percent of sports articles during a particular week in 2013 focused on women’s sports.

Female athletes deserve better than this — they deserve the same respect their male counterparts get. And that means treating Ronda Rousey as a champion in her own right, not just good for a girl.

Comments

Alexander Hamilton: Is there a sane person in America who believes Ronda Rousey needs to fight any man? Good, that's settled. Now here's the question I'd like to see answered: 2,000 years after the Coliseum was closed for business, why are people still watching one person beat up another? Is this as far as society has come? And what kind of person takes pleasure in intentionally hurting another? The difference between this barbarism and what Michael Vick did is one of degree, not of kind.

RobW: Female athletes are not "treated as secondary." They generally ARE secondary. Anna North complains that Kobe Bryant made three times as much as the rest of the WNBA combined. That is not because sports fans are sexists: it's because Kobe Bryant is approximately three times more interesting to watch that the rest of the WNBA combined. Fans pay to see the best, and there is not a single woman in the WNBA that could even sit the bench on any NBA team.

As an under-six-foot male, I was always a little bitter growing up that I didn't have any realistic chance of success basketball (Spud Webb notwithstanding). There are some under-six-foot leagues, however; is the fact that there is zero coverage of these in the sports pages evidence of rampant heightism? Ms. North believes that female athletes "deserve the same respect their male counterparts get." I assume that she would also believe, then, that under-six-foot players should get the same respect as their taller counterparts. No, of course she wouldn't. That would be silly--as silly as saying vastly inferior female athletes deserved exactly the same respect, box office, and press that the best male athletes get.

Sorry, but until Rousey demonstrates that she can routinely beat men in her weight class, she will remain merely "good for a girl." And, frankly, I don't think the sight of a woman fighter getting bloodily brutalized by a man would be negative--it might make plain to men the potentially devastating power they wield.

Jim Waddell: We need to recognize that men and women are different, in many ways. There are very few sports where the top female athletes could beat the top male athletes.

But there are areas where women excel more than men, beginning with education (and in staying out of jail.) Just because one sex does better than another in any given area is not prima facie evidence of discrimination.

Analyzing the Text

What is the author Anna North's purpose?

She wants to answer this question: "Why do we assume that a successful female athlete should move on to competing with male ones?"

North goes on to ask these two question:

"Is her achievement somehow less legitimate because her opponents have been women? Is the only mark of true athleticism the ability to beat a man?"

In other words, does Rousey have to beat a man in a fight to be legit?

These questions lead us to the author's thesis, which can be formulated this way:

"Rousey and female athletes in general don't have to compete against men to prove their greatness because we already have weight classes that compare to the different bone and muscle density between men and women."

Any weaknesses with the thesis? Yes, it has only one mapping component and it doesn't address the fact that the best fighter in Rousey's weight class can't compete against the best male fighter in the same weight class.

Does the author have a counterargument-rebuttal paragraph?

Those who would like to see Ms. Rousey in a mixed-gender bout might argue it would simply be an opportunity for her to fight the best of the best. But the presence of weight classes in mixed martial arts is an acknowledgment that it doesn’t always make sense to compare athletes with different bodies. If Ms. Rousey wouldn’t typically fight someone twice her size, does it make sense for her to fight someone who may have different bone density, different body fat percentage, a different center of gravity? Isn’t she already, by the accepted standards of her sport, the best of the best?

Do you notice any weaknesses in the author's argument?

But in the system we have now, expecting a woman to face a male opponent when she’s expressed no interest in doing so implies that excelling at women’s sports is a secondary achievement. It suggests that women’s sports are like the minor leagues — get good enough, and maybe you can play with the men.

How would you formulate a thesis in response to the author's column?

While North makes a good point that Rousey is a great woman fighter, her larger claim that Rousey is a first-rate champion equal to male fighters is muddled by the fact that Rousey's greatness is a combination of her fighting dominance in the female category combined with her celebrity that transcends MMA competition.

Subordination and Coordination (Complex and Compound Sentences)

Complex Sentence

A complex sentence has two clauses. One clause is dependent or subordinate; the other clause is independent, that is to say, the independent clause is the complete sentence.

Examples:

While I was tanning in Hermosa Beach, I noticed the clouds were playing hide and seek.

Because I have a tendency to eat entire pizzas, inhaling them within seconds, I must avoid that fattening food.

Whenever I’m driving my car and I see people texting while driving, I stop my car on the side of the road.

I have to workout every day because I am addicted to exercise-induced dopamine.

I feel overcome with a combination of romantic melancholy and giddy excitement whenever there is a thunderstorm.

We use subordination to show cause and effect. To create subordinate clauses, we must use a subordinate conjunction:

The essential ingredient in a complex sentence is the subordinate conjunction:

after
although
as
because
before
even if
even though
if
in order that

once
provided that
rather than
since
so that
than
that
though
unless

until
when
whenever
where
whereas
wherever
whether
while
why

I workout too much. I have tenderness in my elbow.

Because I workout too much, I suffer tenderness in my elbow.

My elbow hurts. I’m working out.

Even though my elbow hurts, I’m working out.

We use coordination to show equal rank of ideas. To combine sentences with coordination we use FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)

The calculus class has been cancelled. We will have to do something else.

The calculus class has been cancelled, so we will have to do something else.

I want more pecan pie. They only have apple pie.

I want more pecan pie, but they only have apple pie.

Using FANBOYS creates compound sentences

Angelo loves to buy a new radio every week, but his wife doesn’t like it.

You have high cholesterol, so you have to take statins.

I am tempted to eat all the rocky road ice cream, yet I will force myself to nibble on carrots and celery.

I want to go to the Middle Eastern restaurant today, and I want to see a movie afterwards.

I really like the comfort of elastic-waist pants, but wearing them makes me feel like an old man.

Both subordination and coordination combine sentences into smoother, clearer sentences.

The following four sentences are made smoother and clearer with the help of subordination:

McMahon felt gluttonous. He inhaled five pizzas. He felt his waist press against his denim waistband in a cruel, unforgiving fashion. He felt an acute ache in his stomach.

Because McMahon felt gluttonous, he inhaled five pizzas upon which he felt his waist press against his denim waistband resulting in an acute stomachache.

Another Example

Joe ate too much heavily salted popcorn. The saltiness made him thirsty. He consumed several gallons of water before bedtime. He was up going to the bathroom all night. He got a bad night’s sleep. He performed terribly during his job interview.

Due to his foolish consumption of salted popcorn, Joe was so thirsty he drank several gallons of water before bedtime, which caused him to go to the bathroom all night, interfering with his night’s sleep and causing him to do terribly on his job interview.

Another Example

Bob dropped his peanut butter sandwich in the tiger’s enclosure. He leaned over the fence to reach for his sandwich. He fell over the fence. A tiger approached Bob. The zookeeper ran between the stupid zoo customer and the wild beast. The zookeeper tore his rotator cuff.

After Bob dropped his peanut butter sandwich in the tiger’s enclosure, he leaned over the fence to recover his sandwich and fell into the enclosure during which time he was approached by a hungry tiger, forcing the nearby zookeeper to run between Bob and wild beast. During the struggle, the zookeeper tore his rotator cuff.

Don’t Do Subordination Overkill

After Bob dropped his peanut butter sandwich in the tiger’s enclosure, he leaned over the fence to recover his sandwich and fell into the enclosure during which time he was approached by a hungry tiger forcing the nearby zookeeper to run between Bob and the wild beast in such a manner that the zookeeper tore his rotator cuff, which resulted in a prolonged disability leave and the loss of his job, a crisis that compelled the zookeeper to file a lawsuit against Bob for financial damages.

Posted at 05:40 PM in Culture Code Lessons | Permalink | Comments (0)

Culture Code Lesson Five: Chapters 7 and 8

Culture Code Lesson 5: Chapters 7 and 8

One. Based on American experiences with consumer goods, what is the Code for quality?

We read on page 133, that the American Code for quality is IT WORKS.

This is from imprinting, early experiences in which we were “let down” by a product that failed. For example, I owned a 1999 Volvo S70 GLT that cost me 11K in repairs from the years I owned it, which was 2001-2007. I will never buy a Volvo again. In fact, I will never buy a European car.

On the other hand, the author claims that perfection represents the end of a process.

Americans don't like the process to end, so they'd rather have imperfection, the author claims.

There can be no perfection for the American consumer because products are constantly evolving. That is part of our consumer madness, always needing better and better things.

We read we are less impressed with perfection because we have a negative code for perfection. According to Rapaille, “The Culture Code for perfection is DEATH” (134).

Since for Americans, life is movement, there must be constant change and evolution in consumer products.

Rapaille makes this claim: We as Americans are adolescent and don’t want to be responsible for holding high standards of perfection, as the Japanese are. Our pioneer spirit shies away from perfection and prefers rugged, messy adventure.

To be frank, Rapaille did not convince me of this claim. I know lots of Americans, myself included, who have high standards of perfection in our consumer goods, including cars.

Perhaps Rapaille is trying to force this chapter into his theory about Americans. Perhaps this is a weakness in Rapaille's book.

Further, we read that Americans find perfection boring. Again, I know lots of Americans, myself included, who prefer the "boredom" of perfection to a consumer product that has reliability problem.

Consumer Code for Americans

Our Code for consumerism is planned obsolescence, knowing that the old thing will be replaced with the new. Therefore, perfection cannot exist because products get better and better. This is unconscious, Rapaille reminds us (137).

Americans Love Service

Another Code for American consumerism is SERVICE. The Korean car company Hyundai has addressed this American trait with a 10-year bumper-to-bumper warranty resulting in dramatically increased US sales.

There is an implicit anti-Americanism in this claim. It appears Rapaille is implying that Americans are spoiled queens who need to be pampered. Is this true or an ugly American stereotype?

Two. What is the Code for feeding at the buffet?

Rapaille, from France, was astonished at American eating habits at buffets. They stuffed all kinds of foods on their plates, inhaled the food, and rushed back to the buffet table for more and more food. The vision was sickening and off-code for Rapaille but definitely on-code for Americans.

He noticed that he is a lover of wine but does not drink it to get drunk, yet Americans “go out to get drunk” in the way they go to buffets to binge themselves into sick fullness. In other words, Rapaille saw a parallel between these two binge behaviors.

Bingeing is driven by anxiety and depression, not codes.

So far Americans are arrogant, imperious gluttons with poor taste.

Three. What is “filling up the tank” mean to Americans?

“Filling up the tank” means the following:

quick

abundant

food diversity overload for efficiency (stuffing as many ingredients as possible on a plate for expedience)

In contrast, the French prefer small portions. In fact, an empty plate and wine glass are considered vulgar. This is also true in Iran.

The goal in American eating is to say, “I’m full” whereas the goal in French eating is to say, “That was delicious.”

This may be partly true, but it seems like an oversimplification. I think we can all agree that many Americans, perhaps most, desire food that allows them to say, "That was delicious."

Perhaps Rapaille's anti-American caricature is seeping through once again.

Four. What are the causes behind Americans’ love of the all-you-can-eat buffet?

America’s humble beginnings—poor and hungry—created a farmer mentality of eating. Fill my plate, please.

Farmers are the beginning of America's history. They wake up at 4 or 5 in the morning and eat steak, eggs, potatoes, pancakes, waffles, French toast, orange juice, milk, coffee, cream, donuts, pastries, etc., and then seven hours later it's time for lunch.

American hunger is so instinctive that Rapaille compares us to predators eating our prey with great urgency before competition comes to take it from us. American hunger compels us to eat like animals in case there is a long famine ahead of us.

We are engaged in Reptilian eating.

Further, we read that on an emotional or limbic level, Americans associate food with Mother’s unlimited love. If this is true, then HomeTown Buffet is a giant Food Momma.

In contrast, Italian culture, influenced by its aristocratic roots, shuns overeating as harmful to being able to appreciate taste.

Here we have another anti-American claim: Americans are feral creatures incapable of enjoying food as an eating experience. We don't eat, in Rapaille's judgment: We feed.

Five. What do Americans love more than eating?

Movement, being on the go, staying ahead of the competition.

In America, if you’re not moving, if you’re not doing something, if you’re not active, you’re not alive.

Therefore, our Food Code is fast food. We love fast food, protein bars, eating in cars, eating in classrooms, etc.

Food is FUEL for movement (146).

Americans spend more money on fast food than higher ed, computers, software, and new cars, movies, books, magazines, newspapers, and videos combined (146).

In 1970, Americans spent 6 billion on fast food. Today Americans spend over 100 billion on fast food.

In America, food is Code for ACTION.

In contrast, in France Code for food is pleasure. In Japan, food is Code for perfection.

In France, alcohol is Code for enjoyment and celebration.

In America, alcohol is Code for rebellion against authority, “being naughty,” intoxication, and reckless, violent behavior.

Going out to get drunk is uniquely American.

Sadly, alcohol is associated with violence.

“The American Culture Code for alcohol is GUN” (151).

Rapaille writes, “Think of the Old West Saloon and the recurring image of people getting drunk and getting into gunfights . . .” (152).

Essay Assignment The Culture Code

In a 1,000-word essay, typed and double-spaced, support, refute, or complicate the assertion that The Culture Code evidences that marketing and advertising are evil agencies preying on anthropology, sociology, human psychology, the unconscious, the reptilian, and neuroscience to manipulate people into becoming helpless consumers. Be sure to use Toulmin model of argumentation and have a Works Cited page with no fewer than three sources.

Sample Introduction and Thesis

Clotaire Rapaille’s The Culture Code has a dollop of wisdom and brilliant insight about the unconscious triggers that too often control our desires and consumer habits. However, the underlying agenda of Rapaille’s screed is an insidious and disgusting anti-Americanism that paints Americans as ugly caricatures. Every chapter gives “codes” of American character and if these codes are to be believed Americans are ugly stereotypes characterized as belligerent, gun-toting, arrogant, teenage drunks who are over-sentimental for Momma, rifles, guns, and apple pie. These caricatures of Americans discredit Rapaille’s book because these ugly American portraits are based on half-truths, over simplifications, distorted interpretations, and ignorant stereotypes.

Thesis statements or claims go under four different categories:

One. Claims about solutions or policies: The claim argues for a certain solution or policy change:

America's War on Drugs should be abolished and replaced with drug rehab.

Two. Claims of cause and effect: These claims argue that a person, thing, policy or event caused another event or thing to occur.

Social media has turned our generation into a bunch of narcissistic solipsists with limited attention spans, an inflated sense of self-importance, and a shrinking degree of empathy.

Three. Claims of value: These claims argue how important something is on the Importance Scale and determine its proportion to other things.

Global warming poses a far greater threat to our safety than does terrorism.

Four. Claims of definition. These claims argue that we must re-define a common and inaccurate assumption.

In America the notion of "self-esteem," so commonly taught in schools, is in reality a cult of narcissism. While real self-esteem teaches self-confidence, discipline, and accountability, the fake American brand of self-esteem is about celebrating the low expectations of mediocrity, and this results in narcissism, vanity, and sloth.

Thesis with Concession Clause

While Author X is guilty of several weaknesses as described by her opponents, her argument holds up to close examination in the areas of _________________, ______________, _____________, and ______________.

Even though author X shows weakness in her argument, such as __________ and ____________, she is nevertheless convincing because . . .

While author X makes many compelling points, her overall argument collapses under the weight of __________, ___________, ___________, and ______________.

Strategies for Writing Your Essay (adapted from The Arlington Reader, Fourth Edition)

One. Know what type of writing your doing:

Description
Comparison and contrast
Process analysis (how to do something)
Narrative (we write narratives for many reasons: catharsis of demons, explanation of an epiphany that changed our lives, an account of remarkable suffering and resilience, an account of something that was excruciatingly funny, to name a few examples)
Define a term that your reader needs to understand in greater depth
Persuasion (persuade readers and/or listeners to act as opposed to argumentation which is to win people’s minds over an issue, but not necessarily change their behavior)
Cause and effect analysis
Argumentation

The takeaway from the above is that you should always know what type of essay is generated from the assignment options the professor gives you.

Brainstorm of list of topics and thesis statements that are relevant to the essay.

Most writers need to get the bad stuff out of the way, so there’s no shame in coming up with five bad thesis statements before getting to a good one. That’s a natural course of events.

Always make sure your thesis addresses the essay prompt.

Your thesis is a single sentence that drives your whole essay. The thesis in argumentation is often called your claim.

Generally speaking, a thesis is the main argument or controlling idea of your essay. It makes a claim that intellectually sophisticated, challenging to common assumptions, compelling, and can is supportable with evidence.

The more obvious a thesis, the less compelling it is to write. The more a thesis reaches for insight or challenges common assumptions, the more compelling and sophisticated it is.

Bad thesis:

Smartphones are a nuisance in the class.

Better thesis

Rather than ban students from using their smartphones in the class, college instructors should integrate these and other personal technological devices into their classroom teaching.

Writing an introduction to your essay

Before transitioning from your introduction to your thesis, you should look at some effective introduction strategies:

Briefly narrate a compelling anecdote that captures your readers’ attention.

State a common false argument or false perception that your essay will refute.

Offer a curious paradox to pique your readers’ interest.

Ask a question that your essay will try to answer.

Use a fresh (not overused) quotation or parable to stir your readers’ interest.

How to Set Up a Counterargument in Your Rebuttal Section (The Templates)

Some of my critics will dismiss my claim that . . . but they are in error when we look closely at . . .

Some readers will 0bject to my argument that . . . However, their disagreement is misguided when we consider that . . .

Some opponents will be hostile to my claim that . . . However, their hostility is unfounded when we examine . . .

Transition Words and Phrases

Agreement / Addition / Similarity

The transition words like also, in addition, and, likewise, add information,reinforce ideas, and express agreement with preceding material.

in the first place

not only ... but also

as a matter of fact

in like manner

in addition

coupled with

in the same fashion / way

first, second, third

in the light of

not to mention

to say nothing of

equally important

by the same token

again

to

and

also

then

equally

identically

uniquely

like

as

too

moreover

as well as

together with

of course

likewise

comparatively

correspondingly

similarly

furthermore

additionally

Opposition / Limitation / Contradiction

Transition phrases like but, rather and or, express that there is evidence to the contrary or point out alternatives, and thus introduce a change the line of reasoning (contrast).

although this may be true

in contrast

different from

of course ..., but

on the other hand

on the contrary

at the same time

in spite of

even so / though

be that as it may

then again

above all

in reality

after all

but

(and) still

unlike

or

(and) yet

while

albeit

besides

as much as

even though

although

instead

whereas

despite

conversely

otherwise

however

rather

nevertheless

nonetheless

regardless

notwithstanding

Cause / Condition / Purpose

These transitional phrases present specific conditions or intentions.

in the event that

granted (that)

as / so long as

on (the) condition (that)

for the purpose of

with this intention

with this in mind

in the hope that

to the end that

for fear that

in order to

seeing / being that

in view of

If

... then

unless

when

whenever

while

because of

as

since

while

lest

in case

provided that

given that

only / even if

so that

so as to

owing to

inasmuch as

due to

Examples / Support / Emphasis

These transitional devices (like especially) are used to introduce examples assupport, to indicate importance or as an illustration so that an idea is cued to the reader.

in other words

to put it differently

for one thing

as an illustration

in this case

for this reason

to put it another way

that is to say

with attention to

by all means

important to realize

another key point

first thing to remember

most compelling evidence

must be remembered

point often overlooked

to point out

on the positive side

on the negative side

with this in mind

notably

including

like

to be sure

namely

chiefly

truly

indeed

certainly

surely

markedly

such as

especially

explicitly

specifically

expressly

surprisingly

frequently

significantly

particularly

in fact

in general

in particular

in detail

for example

for instance

to demonstrate

to emphasize

to repeat

to clarify

to explain

to enumerate

Effect / Consequence / Result

Some of these transition words (thus, then, accordingly, consequently, therefore, henceforth) are time words that are used to show that after a particular time there was a consequence or an effect.

Note that for and because are placed before the cause/reason. The other devices are placed before the consequences or effects.

as a result

under those circumstances

in that case

for this reason

in effect

for

thus

because the

then

hence

consequently

therefore

thereupon

forthwith

accordingly

henceforth

Conclusion / Summary / Restatement

These transition words and phrases conclude, summarize and / or restateideas, or indicate a final general statement. Also some words (like therefore) from the Effect / Consequence category can be used to summarize.

as can be seen

generally speaking

in the final analysis

all things considered

as shown above

in the long run

given these points

as has been noted

in a word

for the most part

after all

in fact

in summary

in conclusion

in short

in brief

in essence

to summarize

on balance

altogether

overall

ordinarily

usually

by and large

to sum up

on the whole

in any event

in either case

all in all

Obviously

Ultimately

Definitely

Time / Chronology / Sequence

These transitional words (like finally) have the function of limiting, restricting, and defining time. They can be used either alone or as part of adverbial expressions.

at the present time

from time to time

sooner or later

at the same time

up to the present time

to begin with

in due time

as soon as

as long as

in the meantime

in a moment

without delay

in the first place

all of a sudden

at this instant

first, second

immediately

quickly

finally

after

later

last

until

till

since

then

before

hence

since

when

once

about

formerly

suddenly

shortly

henceforth

whenever

eventually

meanwhile

further

during

in time

prior to

forthwith

straightaway

by the time

whenever

until now

now that

instantly

presently

occasionally

Many transition words in the time category (consequently; first, second, third; further; hence; henceforth; since; then, when; and whenever) have other uses.

Except for the numbers (first, second, third) and further they add a meaning of time in expressing conditions, qualifications, or reasons. The numbers are also used to add information or list examples. Further is also used to indicate added space as well as added time.

Space / Location / Place

These transition words are often used as part of adverbial expressions and have the function to restrict, limit or qualify space. Quite a few of these are also found in the Time category and can be used to describe spatial order or spatial reference.

in the middle

to the left/right

in front of

on this side

in the distance

here and there

in the foreground

in the background

in the center of

adjacent to

opposite to

here

there

from

over

near

above

below

down

up

under

further

beyond

nearby

wherever

around

between

before

alongside

amid

among

beneath

beside

behind

across

Integrating Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism

Summarizing Sources

“A summary restates the main idea of a passage in concise terms” (314).

A typical summary is one or two sentences.

A summary does not contain your opinions or analysis.

Paraphrasing Sources

A paraphrase, which is longer than a summary, contains more details and examples. Sometimes you need to be more specific than a summary to make sure your reader understands you.

A paraphrase does not include your opinions or analysis.

Quoting Sources

Quoting sources means you are quoting exactly what you are referring to in the text with no modifications, which might twist the author’s meaning.

You should avoid long quotations as much as possible.

Quote only when necessary. Rely on summary and paraphrase before resorting to direct quotes.

A good time to use a specific quote is when it’s an opposing point that you want to refute.

Using Signal Phrases or Identifying Tag to Introduce Summary, Paraphrase, and Quoted Material

According to Jeff McMahon, the grading rubric in English classes is used in such a way by instructors that soon there will be no such thing as an “easy” or “hard” professor. They’ll all be the same.

Jeff McMahon notes that the grading rubric in English classes is used in such a way by instructors that soon there will be no such thing as an “easy” or “hard” professor. They’ll all be the same.

The grading rubric in English classes is used in such a way by instructors, Jeff McMahon observes, that soon there will be no such thing as an “easy” or “hard” professor.

The grading rubric in English classes is used in such a way by instructors that soon there will be no such thing as an “easy” or “hard” professor, Jeff McMahon points out.

Common identifying tags (put link here)

Lesson on Evaluating Your Sources (adapted from The Arlington Reader, fourth edition)

We use sources to establish credibility and to provide evidence for our claim. Because we want to establish credibility, the sources have to be credible as well.

To be credible, the sources must be

Current or up to date: to verify that the material is still relevant and has all the latest and possibly revised research and statistical data.

Authoritative: to insure that your sources represent experts in the field of study. Their studies are peer-reviewed and represent the gold standard, meaning they are the sources of record that will be referred to in academic debate and conversation.

Depth: The source should be detailed to give a comprehensive grasp of the subject.

Objectivity: The study is relatively free of agenda and bias or the writer is upfront about his or her agenda so that there are no hidden objectives. If you’re consulting a Web site that is larded with ads or a sponsor, then there may be commercial interests that compromise the objectivity.

Checklist for Evaluating Sources

You must assess six things to determine if a source is worthy of being used for your research paper.

The author’s objectivity or fairness (author is not biased)

The author’s credibility (peer reviewed, read by experts)

The source’s relevance

The source’s currency (source is up-to-date)

The source’s comprehensiveness (source has sufficient depth)

The author’s authority (author’s credentials and experience render him or her an expert in the field)

Warning Signs of a Poor Online Source

Site has advertising

Some company or other sponsors site

A political organization or special interest group sponsors the site.

The site has many links to other biased sites.

Example of Biased "Sources"

Posted at 08:10 PM in Culture Code Lessons | Permalink | Comments (0)

Culture Code Lesson Four: Chapters 5 and 6

Culture Code Lesson 4: Chapters 5 and 6

One. How are Codes created?

We read on page 93 that we have biological instincts (scheme) and the way we, culture, interpret these instincts is our cultural scheme.

For example, our biological dread of death is interpreted by American culture of MOVEMENT IS LIFE so that the Code for hospital, a place where no one moves, is PROCESSING PLANT for the dead.

Americans interpret air conditioning, a way to cool the body, differently than Europeans. Americans see AC as a necessity; in Europe AC is a luxury. Americans like everything cold. Cold temps make us more active, and we love to be active. Shopping is encouraged by cold stores.

America created fast food; France created slow food. Americans “fill their tank” with food while the French celebrate food.

Two. In America, what is the Code for home?

From a biological point of view, the home is protection. From a cultural point of view, however, the relationship goes much deeper. Home represents the return to safety, to “home base.”

We read on page 96 that Americans are immigrants who left everything to find a home. Americans pioneered a land with no roads or houses. We read that “Americans may have a stronger sense of home than any other culture on the planet” (96).

For Americans home is Mother and Country. Home ownership is huge to American identity.

I knew a guy who said, “There are only two kinds of Americans, homeowners and renters.” I'm not sure you'd hear this proclamation outside of America.

George Carlin, long before Rapaille, talked about America’s love of home in his famous baseball and football contrast.

In contrast, home ownership is not so essential to identity in European countries. In France, for example, the sense of “homeland” is not so obsessive (96). In Europe, owning a home and the type of job one has are not so connected to identity as in America.

To sum up, in America we associate Home with the Return (from war, from college, from a dangerous place), Mother, Thanksgiving, Celebration, Achievement, Connecting with Friends and Family, Becoming a Man (“Look at me, I bought a house close to highly-rated schools!”)

Studying these themes, Rapaille writes on page 99, he realized the Code for home in America is the prefix “RE-.”

Return

Reunite

Reconfirm

Renew

These rituals center in the kitchen. If you want your house to increase in value, focus on expanding and upgrading the kitchen.

“Making dinner is Code for Home in America” (100).

However, in today’s America where families eat at different times and often the dinner is frozen pizza or microwave semi-edible food byproducts, the idea of the Grand Meal is part of America’s mythic past (103).

“The American Culture Code for dinner is ESSENTIAL CIRCLE” (107).

American dinners are about connection and conversation; in contrast, we read on page 108 that in China dinner is less about people and more about the food. There is very little conversation because people are focusing on the food they are eating.

In England, dinner is very formal with strict manners and protocols and the English see American eating displays as vulgar and unsanitary.

I offended a British man many years ago in a Middle Eastern restaurant when he watched with disbelief as I inhaled my appetizer in less than 10 seconds. He said he never saw a human being eat like that in his life and he was my friend, yet he was still in shock. My reaction was “What are you look at? I’m hungry, dude.”

Three. In America, why does our job mean so much to us?

Rapaille points out that Europeans love long siestas in the afternoon and 6-week vacations. Americans hate vacations because they lose ground, they get behind, they lose their competitive edge.

The question “What do you do?” inspires fear in Americans. Am I a lawyer, a doctor, a garbage man? What will people think of me? Who am I?

We read that the work ethic has historical roots. When Americans came to the new frontier, they didn’t say, “Let’s have some tea.” They said, “Let’s go to work.”

Americans have a tormented relationship with leisure.

Americans have a difficult relaxing without alcohol. Often, they resort to drink in order to surrender to their free time. Try going to a professional baseball or football game with your children. Drunken troglodytes are spewing curse words and throwing objects at the athletes and other spectators.

We feel that when we work we are taking control of our life, gaining the esteem of others, becoming popular, and “networking.” Working makes us our higher self, we have led ourselves to believe.

Rapaille writes that the Code for work is WHO YOU ARE.

If we are doing “nothing,” we are “nobodies.”

Americans are unique in our unlimited belief in self-reinvention and striking it rich and we idolize billionaires and watch in the millions a TV show called Shark Tank, which features moguls who scold and sometimes make deals with aspiring entrepreneurs.

In America, while teamwork is important, we crave individual adulation, so that teamwork is always secondary to promoting the “special individual” (121).

Four. What is the American attitude toward money?

Of course we love money so we can spend it just like everyone else; however, for us money means something deeper symbolically. Because so little money is old-money and most us have started with little and got our money later, called new money, we associate money with the hard work ethic, virtue, and power of self-reinvention, all parts of the American Dream (125).

In America when we have money we have proven ourselves.

Four. What are the three parts of the brain and what is their relationship to consumer codes?

The cortex guides reason and logic.

The limbic system directs emotions. Our relationship with our mother determines our limbic system; therefore, the limbic system is considered feminine.

The “champion” of the three “brains” is the reptilian, which is found in the cerebellum. These drives are over 200 million years old and are geared for survival and reproduction.

Five. In America, what is the Code for health and wellness?

We read on page 80 that “For Americans, health and wellness means being able to complete your mission.”

We are a nation of “doers”; as a result, we value our independence and self-reliance, attributes established by the American pioneers.

The Code for health in America is MOVEMENT. We are not a culture of repose, contemplation, meditation, and self-examination. We are a culture that must “always be on the go” (80).

We cannot even accept retirement in our country. We cannot accept that “we have stopped.” Many seek a second career in their 60s and 70s.

Other cultures have different Codes. In China, the health Code is harmony with nature. In Japan, the Code is staying healthy out of obligation to one’s culture because being in ill health makes one a burden to others (81).

In America, the Code for doctor is HERO; the Code for nurse is MOTHER.

But in contrast to above, the Code for hospitals is the very negative PROCESSING PLANT.

This makes sense when we realize we equate hospitals with immobility and death and for Americans health and freedom rely on movement.

Six. What is the American obsession with youth based on?

For Americans, a utopian world defies nature and allows us to be perpetual adolescents (85). We are a nation of immigrants, a people who came to the new country to leave their past behind and start over. This sense of renewal and reinvention makes us feel young.

We do not have a natural attitude toward age: Youth is not a stage of life but something we hide behind and wear instead of our natural age. “The American Culture Code for youth is MASK.”

In contrast to America, Britain disdains youth as annoying and boring and inexperienced and prone to mistakes.

Britain values its eccentrics, not its Peter Pans.

Ways to Improve Your Critical Reading

Do a background check of the author to see if he or she has a hidden agenda or any other kind of background information that speaks to the author’s credibility.
Check the place of publication to see what kind of agenda, if any, the publishing house has. Know how esteemed the publishing house is among peers of the subject you’re reading about.
Learn how to find the thesis. In other words, know what the author’s purpose, explicit or implicit, is.
Annotate more than underline. Your memory will be better served, according to research, by annotating than underlining. You can scribble your own code in the margins as long as you can understand your writing when you come back to it later. Annotating is a way of starting a dialogue about the reading and writing process. It is a form of pre-writing. Forms of annotation that I use are “yes,” (great point) “no,” (wrong, illogical, BS) and “?” (confusing). When I find the thesis, I’ll also write that in the margins. Or I’ll write down an essay or book title that the passage reminds me of. Or maybe even an idea for a story or a novel.
When faced with a difficult text, you will have to slow down and use the principles of summarizing and paraphrasing. With summary, you concisely identify the main points in one or two sentences. With paraphrase, you re-word the text in your own words.
When reading an argument, see if the writer addresses possible objections to his or her argument. Ask yourself, of all the objections, did the writer choose the most compelling ones? The more compelling the objections addressed, the more rigorous and credible the author’s writing.

Recognizing Logical Fallacies

Begging the Question

Begging the question assumes that a statement is self-evident when it actually requires proof.

Major Premise: Fulfilling all my major desires is the only way I can be happy.

Minor Premise: I can’t afford when of my greatest desires in life, a Lexus GS350.

Conclusion: Therefore, I can never be happy.

Circular Reasoning

Circular reasoning occurs when we support a statement by restating it in different terms.

Stealing is wrong because it is illegal.

Admitting women into the men’s club is wrong because it’s an invalid policy.

Your essay is woeful because of its egregious construction.

Your boyfriend is hideous because of his heinous characteristics.

I have to sell my car because I’m ready to sell it.

I can’t spend time with my kids because it’s too time consuming.

I need to spend more money on my presents than my family’s presents because I need bigger and better presents.

I’m a great father because I’m the best father my children have ever had.

Weak Analogy or Faulty Comparison

Analogies are never perfect but they can be powerful. The question is do they have a degree of validity to make them worth the effort.

A toxic relationship is like a cancer that gets worse and worse (fine).

Sugar is high-octane fuel to use before your workout (weak because there is nothing high-octane about a substance that causes you to crash and converts into fat and creates other problems)

Free education is a great flame and the masses are moths flying into the flames of destruction. (horribly false analogy)

Ad Hominem Fallacy (Personal Attack)

“Who are you to be a marriage counselor? You’ve been divorced six times?”

A lot of people give great advice and present sound arguments even if they don’t apply their principles to their lives, so we should focus on the argument, not personal attack.

“So you believe in universal health care, do you? I suppose you’re a communist and you hate America as well.”

Making someone you disagree with an American-hating communist is invalid and doesn’t address the actual argument.

“What do you mean you don’t believe in marriage? What are you, a crazed nihilist, an unrepentant anarchist, an immoral misanthrope, a craven miscreant?”

Straw Man Fallacy

You twist and misconstrue your opponent’s argument to make it look weaker than it is when you refute it. Instead of attacking the real issue, you aim for a weaker issue based on your deliberate misinterpretation of your opponent’s argument.

“Those who are against universal health care are heartless. They obviously don’t care if innocent children die.”

Hasty Generalization (Jumping to a Conclusion)

“I’ve had three English instructors who are middle-aged bald men. Therefore, all English instructors are middle-aged bald men.”

“I’ve met three Americans with false British accents and they were all annoying. Therefore, all Americans, such as Madonna, who contrive British accents are annoying.” Perhaps some Americans do so ironically and as a result are more funny than annoying.

Either/Or Fallacy

There are only two choices to an issue is an over simplification and an either/or fallacy.

“Either you be my girlfriend or you don’t like real men.”

“Either you be my boyfriend or you’re not a real American.”

“Either you play football for me or you’re not a real man.”

“Either you’re for us or against us.” (The enemy of our enemy is our friend is every day foreign policy.)

“Either you agree with me about increasing the minimum wage, or you’re okay with letting children starve to death.”

“Either you get a 4.0 and get admitted into USC, or you’re only half a man.”

Equivocation

Equivocation occurs when you deliberately twist the meaning of something in order to justify your position.

“You told me the used car you just sold me was in ‘good working condition.’”

“I said ‘good,’ not perfect.”

The seller is equivocating.

“I told you to be in bed by ten.”

“I thought you meant be home by ten.”

“You told me you were going to pay me the money you owe me on Friday.”

“I didn’t know you meant the whole sum.”

“You told me you were going to take me out on my birthday.”

“Technically speaking, the picnic I made for us in the backyard was a form of ‘going out.’”

Red Herring Fallacy

This fallacy is to throw a distraction in your opponent’s face because you know a distraction may help you win the argument.

“Barack Obama wants us to support him but his father was a Muslim. How can we trust the President on the war against terrorism when he has terrorist ties?”

“You said you were going to pay me my thousand dollars today. Where is it?”

“Dear friend, I’ve been diagnosed with a very serious medical condition. Can we talk about our money issue some other time?”

Slippery Slope Fallacy

We go down a rabbit hole of exaggerated consequences to make our point sound convincing.

“If we allow gay marriage, we’ll have to allow people to marry gorillas.”

“If we allow gay marriage, my marriage to my wife will be disrespected and dishonored.”

Appeal to Authority

Using a celebrity to promote an energy drink doesn’t make this drink effective in increasing performance.

Listening to an actor play a doctor on TV doesn’t make the pharmaceutical he’s promoting safe or effective.

Tradition Fallacy

“We’ve never allowed women into our country club. Why should we start now?”

“Women have always served men. That’s the way it’s been and that’s the way it always should be.”

Misuse of Statistics

Using stats to show causality when it’s a condition of correlation or omitting other facts.

“Ninety-nine percent of people who take this remedy see their cold go away in ten days.” (Colds go away on their own).

“Violent crime from home intruders goes down twenty percent in home equipped with guns.” (more people in those homes die of accidental shootings or suicides)

Post Hoc, Confusing Causality with Correlation

Taking cold medicine makes your cold go away. Really?

The rooster crows and makes the sun go up. Really?

You drink on a Thursday night and on Friday morning you get an A on your calculus exam. Really?

You stop drinking milk and you feel stronger. Really? (or is it placebo effect?)

Non Sequitur (It Does Not Follow)

The conclusion in an argument is not relevant to the premises.

Megan drives a BMW, so she must be rich.

McMahon understands the difference between a phrase and a dependent clause; therefore, he must be a genius.

Whenever I eat chocolate cake, I feel good. Therefore, chocolate cake must be good for me.

Bandwagon Fallacy

Because everyone believes something, it must be right.

“You can steal a little at work. Everyone else does.”

“In Paris, ninety-nine percent of all husbands have a secret mistress. Therefore adultery is not immoral.”

What Jon Stewart Exposes Various Weaknesses in Thinking and Fallacies

One. Straw Man: Twist original material

Two. Non Sequitur: "It does not follow." Rap is not the issue. It's a non sequitur or a red herring (a distraction).

Three. Double-Standard: Hold blacks to one standard and whites to another when it comes to "responsibility."

Four. Measuring proportion. Is racism isolated or pervasive?

Five. Purposely misinterpreting and being selective with data. For example, one talking head from WSJ is right about the petty arrests but glosses over that it's 90% blacks who are getting arrested under these petty circumstances.

Six. Shameless denial of racism. If you repeat a lie over and over, it becomes some people's "truth."

The Importance of Definition in Your Essays

Often we’re analyzing a term that needs clarification. For example, what is morality? Is morality a divine-inspired quality? Or does morality evolve from society’s struggle to learn to create a community that flourishes as a result of cooperation and other cultural values that lift it beyond the individual animal fighting tooth and claw against his competition?

Definition by Synonym

One of the weakest ways to define a term is by naming it with its equivalent name, otherwise known as a synonym. The problem with renaming a term is the trap of the circular definition.

What is pornography?

Pornography is obscenity.

What is obscenity?

Obscenity is pornography.

Definition by Example

A more effective form of definition is to use an example, also called an ostensive definition from the Latin ostendere, “to show.”

What is happiness?

An example of happiness is a society, like Iceland, that nurtures its artists by encouraging them to fail. As a result, Iceland has the highest artists per capita in the world. A key example of happiness is a society that has flourishing artists.

Definition by Stipulation

Stipulations are conditions or requirements that you and your opponents agree to when debating a term.

For example, a ban on weapons needs the stipulation of assault weapons.

A parent is not merely a biological relation to the child; a parent must be present, engaged, and involved in the child’s upbringing.

Meaning is a form of purpose, but that purpose must be attached to a moral code; otherwise, Hitler’s “meaning,” a vision for an all-white race is allowed to be confused with real meaning.

An Extended Definition

An extended definition has three things: term, class, and distinguishing characteristics.

Water is a liquid comprised of H2O.

A parent is a person who is engaged and involved with her child’s upbringing, not merely a biological relation.

A chimera is an obsessive mental state characterized by projection of one’s fantasies, unrealistic expectations, and inevitable failure to meet those expectations.

Meaning is an orientation that gives us purpose, life force, morality, and character.

Love is a deformed mental state resulting in obsession, capriciousness, madness, and death.

Jim Crow is the perpetuation of White Supremacy characterized by the insidious reinvention of slavery through segregation laws, slave wages, and police abuse.

A Chanel No. 5 Moment is a form of narcissism in which you constantly crave the sense of being the star of your own movie, you spend all your resources getting this kind of attention, and you use people to achieve this aim only to find yourself alienated from life, yourself, and the human race.

Logic and Reasoning as a Part of Argumentation

Logic comes from the Greek word logos, meaning, word, thought, principle, or reason. Logic is concerned with the principles of correct reasoning.

Deductive reasoning starts with general premises and ends in specific conclusions. This process is expressed in a syllogism: major premise, minor premise, and conclusion.

Major Premise: All bald men should wear extra sunscreen on their bald head.

Minor Premise: Mr. X is a bald man.

Conclusion: Therefore, Mr. X should apply extra sunscreen.

A sound syllogism, one that is valid and true, must follow logically from the facts and be based on premises that are based on facts.

Major Premise: All state universities must accommodate disabled students.

Minor Premise: UCLA is a state university.

Conclusion: Therefore, UCLA must accommodate disabled students.

A syllogism can be valid without being true as we see in this example from Robert Cormier’s novel The Chocolate War:

Bailey earns straight A’s.

Straight A’s are a sign of perfection.

But only God is perfect.

Can Bailey be God? Of course not.

Therefore, Bailey is a cheater and a liar.

In the above example it’s not true that the perfection of God is equivalent to the perfection of a straight-A student (faulty comparison, a logical fallacy). So while the syllogism is valid, following logically from one point to the next, it’s based on a deception or a falsehood; therefore, it is not true.

Syllogism Example with a Questionable Conclusion

Your parents give you, small child, lots of sugar cereal and lollipops.

A high sugar diet leads to cavities.

Cavities result in trips to the dentist for teeth fillings.

These teeth fillings could have been avoided with a lower sugar diet.

Your parents subjected you to frequent trips to the dentist.

Unnecessary and frequent trips to the dentist are abusive.

Your parents, by virtue of giving you a high-sugar diet, are abusive.

We can conclude, then, that parents who give their children sweets should be reported to social services.

Syllogism with an Illogical Middle Term Is Invalid

Flawed logic occurs when the middle term has the same term in the major and minor premise but not in the conclusion.

Major Premise: All dogs are mammals.

Minor Premise: Some mammals are porpoises.

Conclusion: Therefore, some porpoises are dogs.

Syllogism with a Key Term Whose Meaning Shifts Cannot be Valid

Major Premise: Only man is capable of analytical reasoning.

Minor Premise: Anna is not a man.

Conclusion: Therefore, Anna is not capable of analytical reasoning.

The key term shift is “man,” which refers to “mankind,” not the male gender.

Syllogism with a Negative Premise

If either premise in a syllogism is negative, then the conclusion must also be negative. The following syllogism is not valid:

Major Premise: Only the Toyota Prius can go in the fast-track lane.

Minor Premise: The BMW 4 series is not a Toyota Prius.

Conclusion: Therefore, the BMW can drive in the fast-track lane.

If both premises are negative, the syllogism cannot have a valid conclusion:

Major Premise: The Toyota Prius cannot be denied entrance into the fast-track lane.

Minor Premise: The BMW 4 series is not a Toyota Prius.

Conclusion: Therefore, the BMW cannot be denied entrance into the fast-track lane.

Enthymemes

An enthymeme is a syllogism with one or two parts of its argument—usually, the major premise—missing.

Robert has lied, so he cannot be trusted.

We’re missing the major premise:

Major Premise: People who lie cannot be trusted.

Minor Premise: Robert has lied.

Conclusion: Therefore, Robert cannot be trusted.

When writers or speakers use enthymemes, they are sometimes trying to hide the flaw of the first premise:

Major Premise: All countries governed by dictators should be invaded.

Minor Premise: North Korea is a country governed by a dictator.

Conclusion: Therefore, North Korea should be invaded.

The premise that all countries governed by dictators should be invaded is a gross generalization and can easily be shot down under close scrutiny.

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning begins with specific observations or evidence and moves to a general conclusion.

My Volvo was always in the shop. My neighbor’s Mini Cooper and BMW are always in the shop. My other neighbor’s Audi is in the shop.

Now my wife and I own a Honda and Nissan and those cars are never in the shop.

European cars cost more to maintain than Japanese cars and the empirical evidence and data support my claim.